Marjane Satrapi’s Challenging of Stereotypes in Persepolis

Marjane Satrapi’s Challenging of Stereotypes in Persepolis In Marjane Satrapi’s graphic novel Persepolis, Satrapi states that her goal in writing the book was to dispel many of the hasty generalizations made by the Western world about Iran, a principal sentiment being that the country is little more than a nation founded by fundamentalists and home to terrorists and extremists. To combat the misconception, Satrapi enlists the assistance of examples from her adolescence of barriers and dissent towards the new conservative regime in Iran. By employing events from her childhood in Iran, Satrapi rattles the foundation of the myths and false beliefs assumed by the occident. Satrapi writes that the initial waves of conservative fundamentalism in Iran were met with unified national opposition. To support this claim, she employs both personal and familial examples of dissent felt towards the emerging reactionary regime. In the exposition, Satrapi elucidates as to the significance of her family in Iranian history. She does so when she writes of a conversation she had with her father, in which he states, â€Å"The emperor that was overthrown was [her] [great] grandpa† (Satrapi 22). Given the political upheaval in Iran in 1979 one might make the assumption that a scorned ex-royal family might embrace any form of opposition to the regime that removed them from power. However, Satrapi’s family shows nothing but dissension and malice towards the new regime. By proving one assumption to beShow MoreRelatedMarjane Satrapi’s Challenging of Stereotypes in Persepolis Essay example1112 Words   |  5 PagesIn Marjane Satrapi’s graphic novel Persepolis, Satrapi states that her goal in writing the book was to dispel many of the hasty generalizations made by the western world about Iran, a principal sentiment being that the country is little more than a nation founded by fundamentalists and home to terrorists and extremists. To combat the misconception, Satrapi enlists the assistance examples of barriers and dissent towards the new conservative regime in Iran from her adolescence. By employing events

An Analysis Of Charlotte Gilman s The Yellow Wallpaper...

Published in 1892, Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† may be approached as an American example of the female Gothic, a literary genre pioneered by English writers such as Horace Walpole and Ann Radcliffe. According to the book â€Å"Loving with a Vengeance: Mass Produced Fantasies for Women,† author Tania Modleski points out that texts belonging to this genre typically focus on female protagonists who find themselves in romantic relationships with men that eventually come to oppress them. Thus, Gothic narratives trace the female protagonist’s victimization at the hands of a male lover or a husband, providing â€Å"an outlet for women’s fears about fathers and husbands† (Modleski 10). Radcliffe’s The Mysteries of Udolpho (1794), which describes the misadventures of orphaned Emily who is pursued and persecuted by a violent suitor, is often cited as a quintessential Gothic novel. However, elements of this genre can als o be discerned in such renowned literary classics as Charlotte Brontà «Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s Jane Eyre (1847), with its Gothic setting, ghostly happenings, the brooding male protagonist, and the motif of the madwoman in the attic. It must be noted, however, that the female Gothic was a popular genre, which was not initially valued for its subversive content and even frequently dismissed by critics (Watt 5). Only later, following the advent of critical theory and gender studies, was it reclaimed and celebrated by feminist critics such as Modleski. Gilman’s â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper†Show MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Charlotte Perkins Gilman s The Yellow Wallpaper 1047 Words   |  5 PagesJacob Niemann PY.260.115.05: Humanities Core I 11/22/15 Niemann I What lies beneath â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† Written in 1892, Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† is a short story that explores the mind of a woman who is driven to insanity by her surrounding environment. This woman, who narrates her experiences in a journal, begins by marveling at the grandeur of the estate her husband has taken for their summer vacation. Her feeling that there is â€Å"something queer† (307) about the situationRead MoreAnalysis Of Charlotte Gilman s The Yellow Wallpaper 1517 Words   |  7 PagesGender Role in The Yellow Wallpaper In Charlotte Gilman’s â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper†, Jane is driven insane when the neurasthenia rest cure is given to he by her husband and physician, John. The rest cure was created by Dr. Weir Mitchell targeted towards women who displayed symptoms of neurasthenia,†a psychological disorder marked especially by easy fatigability and often by lack of motivation, [and] feelings of inadequacy†(Merriam- Webster). Jane is forbidden to work and write. She is told to not overexertRead MoreAnalysis Of Charlotte Perkins Gilman s The Yellow Wallpaper 839 Words   |  4 PagesShaquan Chavis 17 November, 2015 English 110 Professor. Cia Kessler Essay #4: Infantilization inside of the â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† The way woman were treated in the late 1800’s is totally different than today. At that time woman and men were not equal to each other. Women were confined to particular roles. The men usually played the dominant role which led women to just listen and follow their spouse. During that time woman were at the bottom of the social class. The regular household consistedRead MoreAnalysis Of Charlotte Perkins Gilman s The Yellow Wallpaper 2536 Words   |  11 PagesResearch Paper Charlotte Perkins Gilman took a leap of faith while writing one of the most notorious stories of her time. The era in which it was written was a time where women were frowned upon for voicing their opinions. Women’s roles in society have evolved over a course of many years. Jobs, social standings, and other rights have not always come easy like they do today. Women were not treated as equals. Gilman’s voice is undoubtedly heard in her story, â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper†, writing about aRead MoreAnalysis Of The Story Of An Hour And Charlotte Perkins Gilman s The Yellow Wallpaper908 Words   |  4 PagesKate Chopin’s â€Å"The Story of an Hour† and Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† are two short stories that share similar themes and ideas. The authors’ use of point of view, symbolism, and imagery are different but still convey the same basic idea. Both stories cover the theme of marriage and share the idea th at marriage is oppressive. The stories focus on two wives desperate to break from the control of their husbands. In â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† the woman’s husband is a doctor thereforeRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book Hills Like White Elephants And Charlotte Perkins Gilman s The Yellow Wallpaper 1633 Words   |  7 Pages In comparison with Ernest Hemingwayn’s â€Å"Hills like White Elephants† and Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper†, both female’s thoughts and feelings are oppressed under the constant weight of their male supplements. With this being the case, are women truly happy with whom they are choosing to spend the rest of their lives? In both Hemingway and Gilman’s short stories, the females are both being portrayed as characters who capitulate to the demands of their male-orientated significantRead MoreA Critical Analysis Of The Yellow Wallpaper By Charlotte Perkins Gilman1051 Words   |  5 PagesEnglish 102 Esposito, Carmine. A Critical Analysis of The Yellow Wallpaper by Charlotte Perkins Gilman Charlotte Perkins Gilman was a famous social worker and a leading author of women’s issues. Charlotte Perkins Gilman s relating to views of women s rights and her demands for economic and social reform of gender inequities are very famous for the foundations of American society in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In critics Gilman ignored by people of color in the United StatesRead MoreThe Yellow Wallpaper, By Harriet Beecher Stowe1603 Words   |  7 PagesThe Yellow Wallpaper is a feminist piece of literature that analyzed women’s struggle in the 1900s, such as medical diagnosis and women’s roles. Over the years, women struggled to attain independence and freedom. In order to achieve these liberties, they were females who paved the way and spoke out about these issues to secure equal rights for women. In addition, these powerful females used their vulnerability to challenge the male domination through their literary work. The Yellow Wallpaper is aRead MoreThe Yellow Wallpaper, By Charlotte Perkins Gilman1271 Words   |  6 PagesCharlotte Perkins Gilman, author of the novel entitled, The Yellow Wallpaper significantly used the aspects of literature such as genre, stance, and register to express the social message concerning the sufferings that women undergo in their daily affairs. However, most of the females do not have control over the challenges that develop in their surroundings. Gilman also uses the book to entertain the society members thus providing relief to the readers. In essence, the author of the novel aboveRead MoreAnalysis Of The Yellow Wallpaper1727 Words   |  7 Pages Analysis of the Short Story The Yellow Wallpaper by Charlotte Perkins Gilman. Originally published in January 1892 issue of New England Magazine. Charlotte Perkins Gilman s short story The Yellow Wallpaper was personal to her own struggles with anxiety and depression after the birth of her daughter with her first husband and S. Weir Mitchell s resting cure treatment she received. The Yellow Wallpaper describes, from the patients point of view, the fall into madness of a woman who is creatively

Economic Performance of United States-Free-Samples for Students

Question: Discuss about the Economic Performance of United States. Answer: Introduction United States (US) economy ranked the world largest nation in nominal way as it represents 20% of the total worldwide output. The service sector of US economy account for 80% of total output. Moreover, US manufacturing base represents about 15% of the global output. US economy is considered as the second largest in terms of purchasing power parity (PPP) that represents 22% of global GDP. This economy has profuse natural resources and developed infrastructure. Presently, it is the major trading economy around the globe as it amounts to $4.92 trillion in the year 2016 (Van den Berg, 2016). Furthermore, the GDP per capita is the ninth highest in the globe and has a low unemployment rate. This assignment highlights on the economic performance of the United States over the past ten years. This paper also discusses about the performance of production output in this state by using macroeconomic indicators including real GDP, real GDP per capita, rate of unemployment and inflation rate. Labo r market of United States is also analyzed in this study. The price level analysis of United States based on its inflation trend is also reflected in this assignment. Production output performance analysis Real GDP, Real GDP growth rate, Real GDP per capita analysis The performance of production output is analyzed by using macroeconomic indicators such as real GDP and real GDP per capita (Morrison, 2012). GDP of an economy refers to the final goods and services that are produced within the geographical broader of the country within a specified time phase. GDP growth rate helps in measuring the economic performance and productivity of the country. GDP is mainly of two types namely real GDP and nominal GDP. Measuring economic performance with these indicator Real GDP is defined as a macroeconomic measurement of economic output that is adjusted without the change in price. It is mainly adjusted for inflation rate that highlights on the product value produced by a country in particular year. However, real GDP growth rate refers to the change in GDP growth rate of the country over a certain period. Per capita real GDP refers to the measurement of countrys economic output divided by its total number of individuals. This macroeconomic indicator is mainly used for comparing the living standard between two nations. Performance trends of US economy Real GDP is considered as one of the most important indicator of measuring the economic performance and production output. The reason behind this fact is that it considers varying value of products when articulated in monetary conditions. Moreover, the countrys productivity output is calculated with less distortion owing to certain economic factors that includes inflation rate and fluctuating currency rate. Real GDP growth rate helps the government of an economy in controlling fiscal policy and inflation. However, this indicator also aid in improving the growth of the economy (Rots and Maduko, 2014). Similarly, per capita real GDP also facilitate in measuring relative performance between two economies. In addition, the productivity output per individual of the workforce is also determined by using real per capita GDP. Furthermore, advancement of technology over production output does not influence per capita GDP. Both real GDP growth rate and per capita real GDP of United States has grown from 2009 to 2017. The economy has shown downward trend in real GDP and per capita GDP in the year 2008 due to recession. This nation annualized to 2.6% of real GDP growth rate in 2017 due to boost in investment, consumption and government spending. Consumption expenditure accounted to 1.93%, investment expenditure and government spending contributed to 0.12 % to the overall growth in the economy. The real GDP per capita increased to 51,950.35 in 2017, which is the highest over the last ten years. Figure 1: Real GDP growth rate of US Source: (As created by author) Figure2: Real GDP per capita of US Source: (As created by author) Measures adopted by US government to achieve production output performance Government of US has adopted various measures in order to improve the production output performance of the country. US government has created new job opportunities that have improved this nation productivity capacity (Gordon, 2014). However, improvement in output aids huge disposable earnings to consumers and promotes rise in consumption expenditure. In addition, the government has adopted new regulation on import for accelerating restrictions on import of low value products. The government has commenced low tax for producers of high-value goods and this resulted to increase in revenue. Labor market analysis Unemployment trend Unemployment rate refers to percentage of jobless labor force with respect to total number of persons in labor force. Unemployment trend is defined as the trends in long term of an economy over the past few years. US economy shows high levels of unemployment rate in long term during the recession period of 2007-2009 (Basu and Foley, 2013). The unemployment rate in this economy averaged to 5.80% from the year 1948 to 2017. Recent data reflects that US unemployment rate shows downward trend after the recession period. Figure 3: Rate of unemployment in US Source: (As created by author) Various factors influence the US unemployment rate: Economic conditions- Subprime mortgage catastrophe and great recession increased the US unemployment rate to 10% in 2009. Further improvement in economic conditions after the recession period declines the unemployment rate to 5%. Advancement of technology- Few employees could not adopt with the advancement of new technology and this replaced workers in various firms. Immigration policy- US immigration policy also affected the workers entering this economy. Demographic trends- Aging population in US economy has resulted to downward trend of unemployment rate in long term that rises during the retirement of Baby Boomer generation. Globalization- US economy created new jobs in foreign markets and this resulted to reduction in labor cost. Types of Unemployment Unemployment refers to the fact that arises when an individual searches for work but is unable to get any job (Levine, 2012). Rate of unemployment facilitates the country in measuring economic health. There are mainly two types of unemployment namely voluntary unemployment and involuntary unemployment. Unemployment is broadly classified into three types that include- structural unemployment, frictional unemployment and cyclical unemployment. Frictional unemployment- This refers to the period when the workers are searching for jobs or moving to another job. This type of unemployment always exists within the economy as mismatch always occurs between employees and jobs. This mismatch relates with workers skills, attitude, work hours and job location. Lack of information increases the time of workers for finding jobs (Mankiw, 2014). Structural unemployment-This type of unemployment focuses on economys structural problems and labor market inefficiency. It occurs in the situation when the present labor market becomes unable to offer any job to the job seeker. However, mismatch happens between the skills that are required for jobs and unemployed employees skill. For example, automobile invention increases the demand for its mechanics. Cyclical unemployment- This kind of unemployment takes place when the fall in countrys aggregate demand is unable to give any job to the people who are in search for it. However, decline in demand for good leads to less production and requirement of fewer workers. As a result, total number of jobless workers becomes greater than the job vacancies. Type of Unemployment in US Frictional unemployment generally exists in the US economy as the unemployed people and new entrants searches for job or changes to another job. Recent statistics reflects that great recession (2008-2009) caused structural unemployment in US economy that also declines during expansion period (Goodwin et al., 2013). The reason behind this is that skills of the workers deteriorated for a long time after recession. As 5% is the level of unemployment, US economy adopts various measures for reducing the rate of unemployment below this level. Government measures adopted to achieve full employment The measures adopted by US government for achieving full employment includes- The government introduced employment programs in the economy. They undertake many policies that help in directing jobs to regions of high unemployment. US government adopted public investment program that facilitates in creating many jobs and raises overall economic growth. The government introduces this program because investment shortfall in education, RD and other sectors creates unemployment. However, this program generates more jobs that results to increase in productivity and full employment (Hall, 2017). Price level analysis Inflation Trend Inflation refers to the rate for which the price level of products rises with the fall in currencys purchasing power. Central bank implements monetary policy for keeping the inflation rate lower in order to avoid deflation and improve the economic growth (Argy, 2013). Inflation rate of an economy is mainly based on consumer price index that tracks goods prices over time. During the financial crisis in 2008, Federal Reserve of US economy has kept the level of interest rate to zero. Inflation rate in US shows a downward trend over the years. The lowest level of inflation rate occurred in 2015 that was 0.1%. The inflation trend of the US economy showed both upward and downward trend over the years. Figure 4: US Inflation rate Source: (As created by author) Inflation rate refers to the measurement of increase in goods price level by using consumer price index. Inflation and inflation rate has an inverse relation. Increase in interest rate leads to increase in consumers savings (Gal, 2015). This leads to decrease in inflation rate of the economy. Causes of Inflation Various factors contribute to rise in inflation are: Exchange rate fluctuations also effects inflation. Increase in VAT rate also leads to increase in domestic inflation. Rise in aggregate demand also impacts on economys inflation rat There are mainly two types of inflation- cost-push and demand-pull inflation. Cost -push inflation-Cost-push inflation occurs due to: Increase in labor cost occurs due to low unemployment rate because scarcity of skilled workers increases the pay levels. Increase in components cost including raw materials results in cost-push inflation (Ulrich, 2013). Demand-pull Inflation- Demand-pull inflation is caused due to certain factors- Exchange rate depreciation increases the imports prices and decreases the exports price of an economy. Thus, aggregate demand of an economy rises if the consumers purchase few imports. Decreases in interest rate also stimulates aggregate demand. It occurs when the resources are fully employed and GDP is rising faster. Cause of Inflation in US economy Rate of inflation is measured by the varying price index. US analyses consumer price index for determining its inflation rate. The CPI of US in 2017 has been 0.1% and hence accumulated inflation is 1.5%. In addition, expansionary fiscal policy causes demands pull inflation in the economy (Hall, 2015). US government lowers the taxes in order to increase discretionary income for consumers. However, government increases it spending for stimulating economic growth. Currency devaluation also leads to increase in exports and this result to rise in aggregate demand of goods. This increases the product price and thus results in demand-pull inflation. Expansionary monetary policy affects the inflation rate in the economy. Expansion in money supply leads to rise in purchasing power of the US consumers. This in term leads to rise in aggregate demand, which pushes the price level upwards. US government measures to achieve stable price Monetary policy helps to keep the prices of goods stable. The Federal Reserve of US sets the monetary policy in order to reach monetary equilibrium. The Federal Reserve tries to maintain inflation by doing open-market operation. They purchases government securities for changing growth rate in money supply. However, increase in money supply increases the demand and this induces sellers to increase production. Eventually, demand and supply becomes equal and this stabilizes price level in the economy. The government tries to lower the inflation rate because it affects the economic health of the country (Gandolfo, 2014). Rapid increase in prices erodes the purchasing power of the consumers. As a result, consumers start to demand higher wages. The companies then strategize to raise the product price for attaining higher profit and meeting the demand of workers. As the goods become more expensive, the business depends on the economic decisions. For this reason, it is necessary for each gov ernment in the economy to keep their price level stable. Hence, this price stability adds to sustainable growth in the economy. Moreover, the government always maintains to keep the interest rate high as this pushes the price level down. Increases in interest rate reduce the consumption spending of the people and this lowers the inflation rate in the economy. Conclusion It can be concluded from the above assignment that the performance of the economy depends on various macroeconomic indicators including, real GDP, Real GDP per capita, unemployment rate and inflation rate. The health of the US economy improved after the period of Great Recession (2008-2009). During this period, the GDP growth rate of the US economy declined. In addition, both the inflation rate and unemployment rate increased during this period. Due to the financial crisis, the US economy slowed down but recovered after this period. The US government implemented various policies and adopted measures in order to improve the economys health. Moreover, financial support from neighboring countries aids the economy to recover from this huge recession. In addition, proper introduction of monetary policy by Federal Reserve helped the country to maintain stable price level of goods. Thus, it is necessary for each economy to analyze their economic performance by applying macroeconomic indicat ors. References Argy, V. (2013).International macroeconomics: theory and policy. Routledge. Basu, D., Foley, D. K. (2013). Dynamics of output and employment in the US economy.Cambridge Journal of Economics,37(5), 1077-1106. Caggiano, G., Castelnuovo, E., Groshenny, N. (2014). Uncertainty shocks and unemployment dynamics in US recessions.Journal of Monetary Economics,67, 78-92. Farber, H. S., Valletta, R. G. (2015). Do extended unemployment benefits lengthen unemployment spells? Evidence from recent cycles in the US labor market.Journal of Human Resources,50(4), 873-909. Gal, J. (2015).Monetary policy, inflation, and the business cycle: an introduction to the new Keynesian framework and its applications. Princeton University Press. Gandolfo, G. (2013).International Economics II: International Monetary Theory and Open-Economy Macroeconomics. Springer Science Business Media. Goodwin, N., Nelson, J., Harris, J., Torras, M., Roach, B. (2013).Macroeconomics in context. ME Sharpe. Gordon, R. J. (2014).The demise of US economic growth: restatement, rebuttal, and reflections(No. w19895). National Bureau of Economic Research. Hall, R. E. (2015). Quantifying the lasting harm to the us economy from the financial crisis.NBER Macroeconomics Annual,29(1), 71-128. Hall, R. E. (2017). High discounts and high unemployment.The American Economic Review,107(2), 305-330. Levine, L. (2012). Economic growth and the unemployment rate. Mankiw, N. G. (2014).Principles of macroeconomics. Cengage Learning. Morrison, C. J. (2012).A microeconomic approach to the measurement of economic performance: Productivity growth, capacity utilization, and related performance indicators. Springer Science Business Media. Rots, E., Maduko, F. (2014). MACROECONOMIC THEORY I. Ulrich, M. (2013). Inflation ambiguity and the term structure of US Government bonds.Journal of Monetary Economics,60(2), 295-309. Van den Berg, H. (2016).International finance and open-economy macroeconomics: Theory, history, and policy. World Scientific Publishing Co Inc.

Social world Essay Example

Social world Paper The conformity studies show group influence by peers, but Milgram (1974, cited by Brown 1996) distinguished this situation from the influence of persons of authority in hierarchical situations. Milgram investigated the strength of pressure to obey with a now-famous methodology. Milgrams subjects were led to believe that they were giving electric shocks to learners (actor confederates), and they were prompted to do so a clearly marked dangerous levels despite the pre-recorded cries of the learners. The subjects exhibited signs of nervous tension, but in the situation where they were alone twenty-six of forty subjects administered the highest shock level. In a variation of this Milgram demonstrated the positive influence of peer pressure in a group situation. The subject was joined by two confederates who were instructed to resist the experimenters authority. In this case the subject joined the peer rebellion and defied the experimenter in thirty-six out of forty trials.  This can be interpreted in different ways. If the subject is seen as a pliant stooge, then this is a demonstration of group influences in a more complex, real way. There are competing influences in most situations which must be incorporated by the individual. It could be that in group situations the individual is affected to a greater extent by a peer than somebody in authority. Equally, it could be a simple aggregated effect with two confederates outnumbering the single experimenter. More positively, if we assume that the subject really does not want to shock the learner, then it may show the enabling effect of the support of others. We will write a custom essay sample on Social world specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Social world specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Social world specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Taken together these experiments begin to suggest that the process of influence in groups is not clear-cut or homogenous. As Brown (1996, p19) puts it [T]here is no universal way in which individuals respond to group pressureparticipants will be affected by the meaning a situation has for them which itself may be influenced by cultural variables. This is a theme that was taken up in experiments into minority influence. Mucovici et al. (1969, cited in Brown 1996) showed the effects of different kinds of peer behaviour on the strength of influence. Groups of six including two confederates were required to name the colour of a slide. The confederates called blue slides as green either consistently or consistently. Results showed that the minority influence was only significant where a consistent behavioural style was evident.  Mugny (1975, cited in Brown 1996) held group discussions on topics of contemporary concern and found that the influence of a minority required that an appropriate argument style be employed. Where differences in opinion were large a flexible negotiation style was more effective, but with smaller differences a more rigid style was more influential. Such experiments show a tendency towards reductionism, groups are reduced to peers, authorities, majorities and minorities. Group pressures become types of influence and influence becomes behavioural style. The more specific that group experiments become the less that they seem to be talking about groups and the more they refer to individuals and circumstances. However, some experiments may have more universal implications. Wetherell (1996, p203) refers to two series of experiments that may indicate that [G]roup membership in itself has profound effects upon the psychology of the individual regardless of personality and individual differences. The Summer Camp Experiments of Sherif and Sherif (1969, cited in Wetherell 1996). used a process of in-group formation and inter-group competition which led to positive identification with the in-group and to overt out-group hostility. They found that specific psychological tendencies were not necessary for this to occur, and concluded that [T]he objective relationship between two groups causes the various subjective or psychological states characteristic of intergroup relations. Tajfel and Turners (1979, cited in Wetherell 1996) Social Identity Theory (S.I.T) based on the findings of the Minimal Group Experiments goes further in identifying the particular processes that occur in individuals when they are in groups. The minimal group idea removed circumstantial factors by taking the extreme case of a group defined by the mere recognition of it. Using schoolchildren, groups were created ostensibly from arbitrary categorisation according to stated preference for the work of either Klee or Kandinsky. Tasks showed that individuals consistently gave preferential treatment to their own group even where there was no-contact between members and there was no overt self-interest involved. They concluded that competition for goals is not required for group conflict, but that conflict occurs due to the self-esteem of the individual being tied to the status of the group. This happens through a process of social categorization, social identification where individuals self-categorizes themselves as group members and attach value to that membership, and social comparison with out-groups. Some of the problems of S.I.T. reflect the wider limitations of experimental work on groups. The sense of belongingness required for defining a group seems to be activated too easily by the individual in isolation. This presents two problems. First, such sensitive activation makes it difficult to determine which single or combination of groups an individual is being influenced by at any one time. Second, if I read the Financial Times and feel a sense of belonging and esteem by doing so, it is not clear whether this says anything at all about the group called Financial Times Readers. Whilst group conflict experiments show that no particular personality traits or circumstances are needed for individuals to be affected by group membership, the analysis still fails to enter the domain of the group because the processes identified are not essentially at the system level. Sapsfords (1996, p70) Domains of Analysis tool might usefully be employed to examine the experimental approach to groups. Group experiments based on participants having effects on each other are within the interpersonal/personal domain which [T]reats the person as a whole living interaction and relationship with other people, but analytically separate from the.[which] presupposes the idea of the individual or person as something distinct from the social world. The experimental methodology therefore prevents work on groups from being located, as might be expected, in the domain of the group. This domain [I]s concerned with what people create between them though not primarily with what participating individuals do and think; the focus is either on the system of which the individuals are a part or the meanings they create between them. Social constructionist and psychodynamic perspectives on groups fit more neatly into this domain, since the group itself is seen as the fundamental unit of analysis. The group psychodynamic paradigm offers a more inclusive vision of group processes. Aschbach and Schermer (1994, adapted in Morgan and Thomas, 1996, p77) describe the paradigm across three systems. First, the internal/intrapsychic systems of each individual in the group including unconscious motivations; Second, systems of communications, both conscious and unconscious between two or more individuals; Finally, The group as group. Some psychodynamic work on groups differs in assumptions from the experimental approach whilst still retaining a focus on what happens to individuals in groups. Instead of measurable behaviour there is an emphasis on subjective experience, a dynamic unconscious and the influence of primitive motivations within the group context. However, it is in the notion of the group mind that the approaches can be most clearly distinguished. Turner (1984, cited in Morgan and Thomas 1996, p68) forthrightly rejects the concept: It is a basic assumption of modern psychology that psychological processes reside only in individuals in the most literal sense, at least, there is no such thing as a group mind'. Thus it would seem that there are no surprises in what experimental evidence can tell us about what goes on in groups. Scientific positivism is scientific positivism. Whilst it is shown that individuals are complex and do not react in just one way, patterns of influence are described in cause-and-effect terms without recourse to emergent properties. The value that we place on this evidence depends on how we define a group. If it is simply a collection of people with affiliation then we must accept that group experiments are some of the most interesting and telling in psychology. But, if we incorporate the possibility of a groupishness (Bions word) beyond that collection, then experiments can contribute little to our knowledge of the group so defined.